专题13《民营经济促进法、个人独资企业法、外商投资法》
以下为《2026商经法鄢梦萱系统精讲》中专题13《民营经济促进法、个人独资企业法、外商投资法》的全部逐字原文内容：
专题13《民营经济促进法、个人独资企业法、外商投资法》
一、民营经济促进法
知识点 092 公平竞争和服务保障措施
1. 公平竞争 (1) 实行全国统一的市场准入负面清单制度； (2) 制定生产经营活动的政策措施应当经过公平竞争审查； (3) 平等适用资金等生产要素和公共服务资源； (4) 招标投标、政府采购等公共资源交易不得有限制或者排斥民营经济组织的行为；（法律另有规定的除外） (5) 预防和制止市场经济活动中的垄断、不正当竞争行为。
2. 服务保障 (1) 制定法律等规范性文件、相关司法解释或者作出有关重大决策，应当听取意见建议；在实施前应当根据实际情况留出必要的适应调整期。 (2) 法律等规范性文件、具体应用法律的解释，不溯及既往。（但为了更好地保护公民、法人和其他组织的权利和利益而作的特别规定除外） (3) 及时向社会公开涉及经营主体优惠政策。 (4) 推动监管信息共享互认，实施分级分类监管。 (5) 原则上采取“随机抽取检查对象、随机选派执法检查人员”的方式。（例外：特殊行业、重点领域实行全覆盖的重点监管） (6) 健全失信惩戒和信用修复制度。
知识点 093 权益保护
1. 保护人格权、财产权 (1) 保护民营经济组织及其经营者的人格权益；因人格权益受到恶意侵害遭受实际损失的，侵权人依法承担赔偿责任。 (2) 为了公共利益的需要，依照法律规定征收、征用财产的，应当给予公平、合理的补偿。 (3) 不得违反法律、法规向民营经济组织收取费用，不得实施没有法律、法规依据的罚款，不得向民营经济组织摊派财物。
2. 禁止利用行政或者刑事手段违法干预经济纠纷 (1) 严格区分经济纠纷与经济犯罪，遵守法律关于追诉期限的规定。 (2) 不得超权限、超范围、超数额、超时限查封、扣押、冻结财物。 (3) 实施限制人身自由的强制措施，应当严格依照法定权限、条件和程序进行。 (4) 规范异地执法行为，建立健全异地执法协助制度。禁止以经济利益等目的滥用职权实施异地执法。
3. 保护合同权益 (1) 国家机关、事业单位、国有企业应当依法或者依合同约定及时向民营经济组织支付账款；不得强制要求以审计结果作为结算依据。 (2) 大型企业应当合理约定付款期限并及时支付账款，不得以收到第三方付款作为向中小民营经济组织支付账款的条件。 (3) 地方各级人民政府及其有关部门应当履行为依法向民营经济组织作出的政策承诺和与民营经济组织订立的合同；因国家利益、社会公共利益需要改变政策承诺、合同约定的，应当依照法定权限和程序进行，并对民营经济组织因此受到的损失予以补偿。
二、个人独资企业法
知识点 094 个人独资企业的概念、特征和债务清偿★
1. 概念 个人独资企业，是指依法在中国境内设立，由1个自然人投资，财产为投资人个人所有，投资人以其个人财产对企业债务承担无限责任的经营实体。
2. 特征 (1) 投资者仅可以是1个自然人； (2) 个人独资企业不具有法人资格，不具有独立的法人地位； (3) 个人独资企业的全部财产为投资人个人所有； (4) 投资人对企业的经营与管理事务享有绝对的控制权与支配权，不受其他任何人的干预。
【易错】 1个自然人从事商业活动，可以设立公司，是独立法人，适用《公司法》中的法律规则；也可以设立个人独资企业，是非法人组织，受《个人独资企业法》调整。
1. 个人独资企业的债务清偿
知识点 095 个人独资企业的事务管理
| 主体/类别 | 事项 | 内容 |
| 投资人 | 管理方式 | (1) 投资人可以自行管理企业事务； (2) 投资人也可以委托或者聘用其他具有民事行为能力的人负责企业的事务管理； (3) 投资人对受托人或者被聘用的人员职权的限制，不得对抗善意第三人。 |
| 受托人 | 禁止行为 | 受托人或者被聘用的人员不得有下列行为： (1) 利用职务上的便利，索取或者收受贿赂、侵占企业财产； (2) 挪用企业的资金归个人使用或者借贷给他人； (3) 泄露本企业的商业秘密。 |
| 未经许可不得从事的行为 | (1) 擅自将企业资金以个人名义或者以他人名义开立账户存储、以企业财产提供担保，将企业商标或者其他知识产权转让给他人使用； (2) 未经投资人同意，从事与本企业相竞争的业务、同本企业订立合同或者进行交易。 | |
| 赔偿责任 | 受托人或者被聘用的人员管理企业事务时违反双方订立的合同，给投资人造成损害的，承担民事赔偿责任。 |
三、外商投资法律制度
知识点 096 外商投资的概念、具体类型★
1. 概念 外商投资，是指外国的自然人、企业或者其他组织（以下简称“外国投资者”）直接或者间接在中国境内进行的投资活动。
2. 具体类型 (1) 外国投资者单独或者与其他投资者共同在中国境内设立外商投资企业； (2) 外国投资者取得中国境内企业的股份、股权、财产份额或者其他类似权益； (3) 外国投资者单独或者与其他投资者共同在中国境内投资新建项目； (4) 法律、行政法规或者国务院规定的其他方式的投资。
知识点 097 对外商投资的促进措施（“一幅蓝图”）★
1. 对外商投资实行准入前国民待遇 (1) 在投资准入阶段给予外国投资者及其投资不低于本国投资者及其投资的待遇； (2) 中国缔结或者参加的国际条约、协定对外国投资者准入待遇有更优惠规定的，可以按照相关规定执行。
2. 设立特殊经济区域、给予优惠待遇 (1) 国家根据需要，设立特殊经济区域，或者在部分地区实行外商投资试验性政策措施，促进外商投资，扩大对外开放。 (2) 国家根据国民经济和社会发展需要，鼓励和引导外国投资者在特定行业、领域、地区投资。外国投资者、外商投资企业可以依法享受优惠待遇。
3. 平等参与、公平竞争 (1) 国家保障外商投资企业依法平等参与标准制定工作，强化标准制定的信息公开和社会监督； (2) 国家制定的强制性标准平等适用于外商投资企业； (3) 国家保障外商投资企业依法通过公平竞争参与政府采购活动； (4) 外商投资企业可以依法通过公开发行股票、公司债券等证券和其他方式进行融资。
知识点 098 对外商投资的保护措施（“一颗定心丸”）★
国家对外商投资企业采取了一系列保护措施：
1. 对外国投资者的投资不实行征收 (1) 在特殊情况下，国家为了公共利益的需要，可以依照法律规定对外国投资者的投资实行征收或者征用。 (2) 征收、征用应当依照法定程序进行，并及时给予公平、合理的补偿。 (3) 外国投资者在中国境内的出资、利润、清算所得等，可以依法以人民币或者外汇自由汇入、汇出。
2. 对知识产权的保护 (1) 国家保护外国投资者和外商投资企业的知识产权；对知识产权侵权行为，严格依法追究法律责任。 (2) 国家鼓励在外商投资过程中基于自愿原则和商业规则开展技术合作。行政机关及其工作人员不得利用行政手段强制转让技术。 (3) 行政机关及其工作人员对于履行职责过程中知悉的外国投资者、外商投资企业的商业秘密，应当依法予以保密，不得泄露或者非法向他人提供。
3. 对各级政府及其有关部门的制约 | 事项 | 要求/内容 | | :--- | :--- | | 制定规范性文件的要求 | (1) 不得减损外商投资企业的合法权益或者增加其义务；
(2) 不得设置市场准入和退出条件；
(3) 不得干预外商投资企业的正常生产经营活动。 | | 履行政策承诺 | (1) 地方各级人民政府及其有关部门应当履行向外国投资者、外商投资企业依法作出的政策承诺以及依法订立的各类合同；
(2) 因国家利益、社会公共利益需要改变政策承诺、合同约定的，应当依照法定权限和程序进行，并依法对外国投资者、外商投资企业因此受到的损失予以补偿。 |
知识点 099 对外商投资的管理措施（“一个紧箍咒”）★
1. 负面清单管理 负面清单，是指国家规定在特定领域对外商投资实施的准入特别管理措施。 (1) 有关主管部门应当按照与内资一致的条件和程序，审核外国投资者的许可申请，法律、行政法规另有规定的除外。 (2) 外商投资准入负面清单以外的领域，按照内外资一致的原则实施管理。 (3) 外商投资准入负面清单规定禁止投资的领域，外国投资者不得投资。 (4) 外商投资准入负面清单规定限制投资的领域，外国投资者进行投资应当符合负面清单规定的条件。 (5) 处理：外国投资者投资禁止投资的领域的，由有关主管部门责令停止投资活动，限期处分股份、资产或者采取其他必要措施，恢复到实施投资前的状态；有违法所得的，没收违法所得。
2. 国家建立外商投资信息报告制度 (1) 外国投资者或者外商投资企业应当通过企业登记系统以及企业信用信息公示系统向商务主管部门报送投资信息； (2) 外商投资信息报告的内容和范围按照确有必要的原则确定； (3) 通过部门信息共享能够获得的投资信息，不得再次要求报送。
3. 审查制度 (1) 国家对影响或者可能影响国家安全的外商投资进行安全审查，依法作出的安全审查决定为最终决定； (2) 外国投资者并购中国境内企业或者以其他方式参与经营者集中的，应当依照《反垄断法》的规定接受经营者集中审查； (3) 外商投资企业的组织形式、组织机构及其活动准则，适用《公司法》《合伙企业法》等法律的规定。
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专题14《破产法总论（上）》
以下为《2026商经法鄢梦萱系统精讲》中专题14《破产法总论（上）》的全部逐字原文内容：
专题14《破产法总论（上）》
《企业破产法》的立法目的是规范企业破产程序，公平清理债权债务，保护债权人和债务人的合法权益，维护社会主义市场经济秩序。
一、破产案件的申请
知识点 100 破产原因
《企业破产法》第2条 企业法人不能清偿到期债务，并且资产不足以清偿全部债务或者明显缺乏清偿能力的，依照本法规定清理债务。 企业法人有前款规定情形，或者有明显丧失清偿能力可能的，可以依照本法规定进行重整。
可知，破产原因是企业法人启动破产程序的前提。当出现破产原因时，企业法人可以依据破产的规则来清偿债务。
1. “破产原因”的认定
| 概 念 | 可启动的程序 | 举 例 |
| 不能清偿+资不抵债 | 下列情形同时存在的，法院应当认定债务人不能清偿到期债务： (1) 债权债务关系依法成立； (2) 债务履行期限已经届满； (3) 债务人未完全清偿债务。 | 破产第一案：沈阳市防爆器械厂连续亏损10余年，仅有5万余元的固定资产，但所欠外债高达48万余元，于1986年8月被宣告破产。 |
| 不能清偿+明显缺乏清偿能力 （钱没了、人没了、强执不能、扭亏无望） | 出现下列情形之一的，应当认定债务人明显缺乏清偿能力： (1) 因资金严重不足或财产不能变现等原因，无法清偿债务； (2) 法定代表人下落不明且无其他人员负责管理财产，无法清偿债务； (3) 经法院强制执行，无法清偿债务； (4) 长期亏损且经营扭亏困难，无法清偿债务； (5) 导致债务人丧失清偿能力的其他情形。 | 可选择：重整、和解、清算（三选一） |
| 有明显丧失清偿能力的可能 | 虽然尚未出现不能清偿的客观事实，但已经出现经营危机。 | 重整 |
2. 对破产申请异议的处理 (1) 以对债务人的债务负有连带责任的人未丧失清偿能力为由，主张债务人不具备破产原因的，法院不予支持。例如，A奶粉公司出现破产原因，但为其一笔借款提供担保的甲公司是正常企业，则不能因为甲公司正常，就不受理A奶粉公司的破产申请。 (2) 以申请人未预先交纳诉讼费用为由，对破产申请提出异议的，法院不予支持。（因为“诉讼费用”属于“破产费用”，受理后从破产财产中随时清偿，详见后文） (3) 以债务人在申请时未提交财产状况说明等材料为由，对破产申请提出异议的，法院不予支持。
【易混】《企业破产法》清算 VS. 《公司法》清算
| 项目 | 破产清算 | 正常清算 |
| 原因不同 | 出现破产原因。 | 股东会决议解散、出现章程规定的解散事由、公司陷入僵局等。 |
| 处理不同 | 向法院申请破产，依司法程序进行。 | 以股东自行清算为主。 |
知识点 101 破产申请人★
下列四类主体可以向法院请求裁定债务人适用破产程序：
| 申请的主体 | 申请的条件 | 申请的程序 | 举 例 |
| 债务人 | 出现破产原因（如“不能清偿+资不抵债”等）。 | 重整、和解、清算（三选一） | A公司是债务人，要求其必须出现“破产原因”，防止“假破产，真逃债”。 |
| 债权人 | 需提交债务人不能清偿到期债务的有关证据。 【易错1】债权人无需证明“债务人是否资不抵债、是否明显缺乏清偿能力”，因为债权人是外部人，无法证明债务人的内部经营情况。 【易错2】债权是“已到期的、法律上可强制执行的请求权”。 | 重整、破产清算（二选一）〔1〕 【易错1】出资人无权直接启动破产程序，是否破产属于企业的经营事项，出资人无权直接干涉。 | A公司欠B银行1000万元到期不能清偿，B银行可以申请A公司破产，但该项债权要求是已到期债权。 |
| 出资人（股东）〔2〕 | (1) 足够早：在法院受理破产申请后、宣告债务人破产前； (2) 足够大：出资额占债务人注册资本1/10以上的出资人； (3) 被动进入：当债权人申请对债务人进行破产清算时，上述出资人可以请求转为重整程序。 | 清算 → 重整 【易错2】受理破产申请日 ≠ 宣告破产日。前者是指进入司法程序，后者是指无药可救，后续只能注销企业。 | A公司满足左述条件的，可以向法院申请“转为A公司重整”。 |
| 清算人 | 企业法人已解散但未清算或者未清算完毕，资产不足以清偿债务的，依法负有清算责任的人应当向法院申请破产清算。 | (1) 仅能启动“清算”； (2) 法院于受理申请时宣告债务人破产。 | A公司股东会决议解散公司，在解散后清算时发现符合“破产原因”的，清算人可申请破产清算。 |
〔1〕 债权人不能申请和解。因为“和解”简单单一，仅依赖于债权人让步。在债务人已经陷入资不抵债的经营困境时，债权人有重整的动力，也有清算的动力，但缺乏结债权债务关系的需求，但债权人主动提出和解和商业实践不符。 〔2〕 《企业破产法》第70条第2款规定：“债权人申请对债务人进行破产清算的，在人民法院受理破产申请后、宣告债务人破产前，债务人或者出资额占债务人注册资本1/10以上的出资人，可以向人民法院申请重整。”
【随堂小测】
1. 2020年6月，各债权人欲申请萱草公司破产还债。萱草公司拖欠甲公司货款30万元，按合同应于2020年10月付款。 问：甲公司是否有权申请萱草公司破产？ 答：无权。甲公司的债权未到期。
2. 2020年6月，各债权人欲申请萱草公司破产还债。萱草公司拖欠乙公司货款40万元，应于2017年1月偿还，但乙公司一直未追索。 问：乙公司是否有权申请萱草公司破产？ 答：无权。乙公司的债权已经超过诉讼时效。
知识点 102 破产申请的撤回和救济
1. 法院受理破产申请前，申请人可以请求撤回申请。
2. 可上诉的两个裁定：裁定不受理：法院裁定不受理破产申请的，申请人可以向上级法院提起上诉。裁定驳回申请：法院受理破产申请后至宣告破产前，经审查发现债务人不符合“破产原因”的，可以裁定驳回申请。申请人不服的，可以向上一级法院提起上诉。
二、破产案件的受理
受理，是指法院在收到破产申请后，认为申请符合法定条件而予以接受，并由此开始破产程序的行为。 破产程序强调公平地满足所有债权人的清偿要求，而债权人的公平受偿又以债务人财产稳定为基础。为保障债务人财产利益最大化，法院受理破产申请后会对债务清偿、民事诉讼程序产生一系列影响。
知识点 103 破产案件受理后的法律效果★★
1. 禁止个别清偿 (1) 个别清偿，是指案件受理后未经集体程序的单独清偿行为； (2) 法院受理破产申请后，债务人对个别债权人（含担保物权人）的债务清偿无效。
【原理】 在债务人已被法院裁定受理破产申请的情况下，再实施对个别债权人的清偿的，显然违反了公平清偿的原则。
1. 确定管理人 (1) 法院裁定受理破产申请的，应当同时指定管理人。 (2) 法院受理破产申请后，债务人的债务人或者财产持有人应当向管理人清偿债务或者交付财产。 债务人的债务人或者财产持有人故意违反前述规定向债务人清偿债务或者交付财产，使债权人受到损失的，不免除其清偿债务或者交付财产的义务。
2. 待履行合同的处理 (1) 概念。待履行合同，是指在破产申请受理前成立，但债务人和对方当事人均未履行完毕的合同。例如，双方签订建筑工程施工合同，该工程因为萱草公司拖欠工程款尚未竣工，现萱草公司破产。该合同为“双方均未履行完毕的合同”。另一常见类型是“所有权保留买卖”。 (2) 处理。管理人有权决定解除或者继续履行合同，并通知对方当事人。管理人决定继续履行合同的，对方当事人应当履行。 (3) 三种情况视为解除合同：
3. 受理破产申请对民事诉讼程序影响的处理
| 程序类型 | 处理规定 | 举 例 |
| 进行中的民事诉讼、仲裁程序 | (1) 已经开始而尚未终结的有关债务人的民事诉讼或者仲裁应当中止； (2) 在管理人接管债务人的财产后，该诉讼或者仲裁继续进行。 | [例] 甲因货款纠纷起诉萱草公司。诉讼中，A法院查封了萱草公司的涉案货物。后B法院受理了萱草公司的破产申请。此时，A法院采取的“查封措施”应当解除。 |
| 破产程序开始后的民事诉讼 | 有关债务人的民事诉讼，只能向受理破产申请的法院提起。 | |
| 保全、执行程序 | (1) 有关债务人财产的保全措施（冻结、扣押、查封等）应当解除； (2) 执行程序应当中止。 |
1. 债权异议的处理
| 前 提 | 处 理 |
| 情形1：破产申请受理前，当事人之间订立有仲裁条款或者仲裁协议。 | 向选定的仲裁机构申请确认债权债务关系（有仲裁，需仲裁）。 |
| 情形2：破产申请受理前，当事人之间没有订立仲裁条款或者仲裁协议。 | 异议人应当在债权人会议核查结束后15日内向法院提起债权确认的诉讼。（无仲裁，则诉讼）。 |
知识点 104 破产案件受理的程序
1. 债权人提出破产申请
| 环节 | 处 理 | 总 结 |
| 5日通知 | 法院应当自收到债权人申请之日起5日内通知债务人。 | 可以概括为：“5通7异10裁定，特情上批延15”。 (5+7+10+15=37日) |
| 7日异议 | 债务人对申请有异议的，应当自收到法院的通知之日起7日内向法院提出。 | |
| 10日裁定 | 法院应当自异议期满之日起10日内裁定是否受理。 | |
| 15日延长 | 有特殊情况需要延长的，经上一级法院批准，可以延长15日。 |
1. 债务人/清算人提出破产申请（略）
三、管理人、债权人会议、债权人委员会
知识点 105 管理人
1. 概念 管理人，是指法律为实现破产程序的目的而设定的履行法定职能的专门机构。
2. 管理人的产生 (1) 法院裁定受理破产申请的，应当同时指定管理人。 (2) 管理人的报酬由法院确定。 (3) 经法院许可，管理人可以聘用必要的工作人员。 (4) 管理人辞去职务应当经法院许可；没有正当理由的，管理人不得辞去职务。 (5) 债权人会议认为管理人不能依法、公正执行职务或者有其他不能胜任职务情形的，可以申请法院予以更换。
【萱站点睛/易错】债权人会议无权直接更换管理人，仅能“申请”。
1. 管理人的任职资格
2. 管理人的权利和义务
| 维度 | 权 利 | 义 务 |
| 债务人财产 | 管理人对债务人财产的管理权： (1) 接管债务人的财产、印章和账簿、文书等资料； (2) 调查债务人财产状况，制作财产状况报告； (3) 管理和处分债务人的财产； (4) 债务人的债务人（次债务人）或者财产持有人应当向管理人清偿债务或者交付财产。 | 管理人对重大财产处分的报告义务： (1) 管理人应当及时报告债权人委员会；未设立债权人委员会的，管理人应当及时报告法院。 (2) 管理人应当事先制作财产管理或者变价方案并提交债权人会议进行表决，债权人会议表决未通过的，管理人不得处分。 (3) 债权人委员会认为管理人实施的处分行为不符合债权人会议通过的财产管理或者变价方案的，有权要求管理人纠正。管理人拒绝纠正的，债权人委员会可以请求法院作出决定。 |
| 债务人事务执行 | 管理人对债务人事务的执行权： (1) 决定债务人的内部管理事务、债务人的日常开支和其他必要开支； (2) 在第一次债权人会议召开之前，决定继续或者停止债务人的营业； (3) 代表债务人参加诉讼、仲裁或者其他法律程序； (4) 提议召开债权人会议； (5) 法院认为管理人应当履行的其他职责。 | 管理人行使职权的报告义务： (1) 管理人向法院报告工作； (2) 管理人向债权人会议报告职务执行情况，并回答询问，接受债权人会议和债权人委员会的监督。 |
知识点 106 债权人会议与债权人委员会★★
1. 区别
| 项目 | 债权人会议 | 债权人委员会 |
| 概念 | 债权人会议是指债权人参加破产程序并集体行使权利的决议机构。 | (1) 债权人委员会是指代表债权人会议行使监督权利的机构； (2) 是否设立债权人委员会，由债权人会议决定，经法院书面决定许可。 |
| 组成 | (1) 依法申报债权的债权人为债权人会议的成员，有权参加债权人会议，享有表决权； (2) 债权人会议应当有债务人的职工和工会的代表参加，对有关事项发表意见。 | (1) 债权人委员会由债权人会议选任的债权人代表和1名债务人的职工代表或者工会代表组成； (2) 债权人委员会成员不得超过9人。（债权人+职工 ≤ 9人） |
| 召集规则 | (1) 第一次债权人会议由法院召集，自债权申报期限届满之日起15日内召开； (2) 以后的债权人会议，在法院认为必要时，或者管理人、债权人委员会、占债权总额1/4以上的债权人向债权人会议主席提议时召开。 | （无） |
| 表决规则 | (1) 一般事项：出席会议的有表决权的债权人过半数，并且其所代表的债权额占无财产担保债权总额的1/2以上的，可通过债权人会议决议； (2) 特别表决事项：重整、和解，采取特别表决规则。（详见下文“知识点 119”） | （无） |
1. 权利
| 事项 | 债权人会议 | 债权人委员会 |
| 债务人财产 | (1) 通过债务人财产的管理方案； (2) 通过破产财产的变价方案； (3) 通过破产财产的分配方案。 | (1) 监督债务人财产的管理和处分； (2) 监督破产财产分配； (3) 对债权人利益有重大影响的财产处分行为，管理人应当及时报告债权人委员会。 |
| 债务人重大事项的决议权 | (1) 通过重整计划； (2) 通过和解协议； (3) 核查债权； (4) 选任和更换债权人委员会成员。 | （无） |
| 其他事项 | (1) 申请法院更换管理人，审查管理人的费用和报酬； (2) 监督管理人； (3) 决定继续或者停止债务人的营业。 |
【总结】关于债务人财产，掌握“谁决定，谁执行，谁监督”：
四、破产费用与共益债务
知识点 107 破产费用和共益债务的概念★
1. 破产费用 (1) 破产费用，是指破产程序本身耗费的成本，是为破产程序的进行以及全体债权人的共同利益而从债务人财产中优先支付的费用。 (2) 破产费用具体包括：
2. 共益债务 (1) 共益债务，是指法院受理破产申请后，为全体债权人的共同利益而管理、变价和分配破产财产而负担的债务，与之对应的债权人一方称为“共益债权人”。 (2) 共益债务具体包括：
| 类别 | 内容 | 举例 |
| 合同之债 | 破产申请受理后，因管理人/债务人请求相对方当事人履行双方均未履行完毕的合同所产生的债务。 | [例1-合同之债] A公司和B公司签订了原材料所有权保留买卖合同，A公司采取分期付款方式支付价款。A公司尚未支付总价款的75%即被受理破产。后由于原材料涨价，A公司的管理人决定继续履行该合同。现A公司要向B公司支付剩余款，该合同之债务为“共益债务”。 |
| 侵权之债 | (1) 破产申请受理后，管理人或者相关人员执行职务致人损害产生的债务； (2) 破产申请受理后，债务人财产致人损害产生的债务。 | |
| 无因管理之债 | 破产申请受理后，债务人财产因无因管理所产生的债务。 | [例2-无因管理之债] A公司于2021年1月被受理破产申请，同年7月，当地突发暴雨灾害。B公司做主替A公司将价值100万元的货物运送到安全地带，并为此支付搬运费5万元。B公司避免了A公司其他债权人更大的损失，该5万元债务为“共益债务”。 |
| 不当得利之债 | 破产申请受理后，因债务人不当得利所产生的债务。 | |
| 为继续营业发生的债务 | (1) 为债务人继续营业而应支付的劳动报酬和社会保险费用以及由此产生的其他债务； (2) 管理人或者自行管理的债务人可以为债务人继续营业而借款。（可优先于普通破产债权清偿，但不可主张优先于此前已就债务人特定财产享有担保的债权清偿） |
知识点 108 破产费用与共益债务的清偿★★
1. 债务人财产足以清偿 债务人财产足以清偿破产费用和共益债务时，二者的清偿不分先后，随时发生，随时清偿。
【萱站点睛】清偿规则：“对外按顺序，对内按比例”。
1. 债务人财产不足以清偿 (1) 债务人财产不足以清偿破产费用的，破产程序终结； (2) 当债务人财产不足以同时清偿破产费用和共益债务时，应当优先清偿破产费用； (3) 当债务人财产不足以清偿所有破产费用或者共益债务时，按照比例清偿。
[例] A公司被法院受理破产申请，其债务人财产共计10万元。
| 情形 | 处 理 | 规 则 |
| 情景一 | A公司欠付破产费用18万元、共益债务40万元。 | 在清偿破产费用后，因无财产，故破产程序终结，不再清偿共益债务。 若破产费用有a项、b项、c项三项，则：a项，按照10×a/18清偿；b项，按照10×b/18清偿；c项，按照10×c/18清偿。 |
| 情景二 | A公司欠付破产费用8万元、共益债务8万元。 | 先全额清偿破产费用8万元，余额2万元清偿共益债务。 共益债务内部每一项按比例清偿。若a项共益债务为5万元，则按照2×5/8清偿。 |
14 常考角度总结 SUMMARIZE
1. 债权人提出的破产申请是否成立。
2. 出资人申请破产重整的条件。
3. 受理破产申请对合同、民事诉讼程序的影响。
4. 管理人、债权人会议、债权人委员会职权的区别。
5. 破产费用的认定和清偿顺序。
专题13《民营经济促进法、个人独资企业法、外商投资法》
专题13《个人独资企业法、外商投资法》
考点 42 个人独资企业法
第1题 “李老汉私房菜”是李甲投资开设的个人独资企业。关于该企业遇到的法律问题，下列哪一选项是正确的？(2017/3/30-单)
A 如李甲在申请企业设立登记时，明确表示以其家庭共有财产作为出资，则该企业是以家庭成员为全体合伙人的普通合伙企业
B 如李甲一直让其子李乙负责企业的事务管理，则应认定为以家庭共有财产作为出资
C 如李甲决定解散企业，则在解散后5年内，李甲对企业存续期间的债务，仍应承担偿还责任
D 如李甲死后该企业由其子李乙与其女李丙共同继承，则该企业必须分立为两家个人独资企业
第2题 甲为A个人独资企业（以下简称“A企业”）股东，因经营不善，决定解散该企业。此时企业资产仅剩10万元，欠员工工资和社保10万元、税款5万元、房租10万元、供应商20万元。以下哪些说法是正确的？(2023-回忆版-多)
A 针对A企业无力偿还的税款，甲负无限连带责任
B A企业剩余资金应优先偿付员工的工资和社会保险费用
C 债权人仅可通过A企业的破产清算程序来受偿
D A企业依破产清算程序裁定终结后，债权人仍然可以就其未获清偿的部分向甲主张权利
考点 43 外商投资法律制度
第3题 根据我国《外商投资法》的规定，下列哪些说法是错误的？(2020-回忆版-多)
A 实行外商投资准入负面清单管理制度，准入负面清单规定禁止投资的领域，外国投资者不得投资
B 地方政府制定涉及外商投资的规范性文件，可根据当地经济和社会发展需要设置市场准入和退出条件
C 地方政府及其有关部门可依权限和程序改变向外国投资者作出的政策承诺
D 国家对影响或者可能影响国家安全的外商投资进行安全审查，对决定不服的，外国投资者可以提出行政复议
专题14《破产法总论（上）》
专题14《破产法总论（上）》
考点 44 破产原因、破产申请
第4题 A公司欠B公司租金1500万元。但当债务到期，B公司索要时，发现A公司法定代表人不知所踪，A公司也不再经营。B公司多次发出律师函催要无果。据此，下列说法正确的是：(2022-回忆版-单)
A B公司没有向法院申请确认合同债权，不能向法院申请A公司破产
B B公司没有向法院确认A公司资不抵债，不能向法院申请A公司破产
C B公司应当向A公司所在地的中级法院申请A公司破产
D B公司可以直接向法院申请对A公司进行破产清算
第5题 甲公司向乙银行借款100万元，丙公司为该债务提供担保。甲公司股东之间矛盾重重，经营陷入困境，法定代表人和主要管理人员均下落不明。乙银行的贷款到期后，甲公司未清偿，乙银行向法院申请甲公司破产，法院受理后指定了为破产管理人。管理人发现甲公司的资产负债表中的资产大于负债。下列说法正确的是：(2022-回忆版-单)
A 因甲公司账面资产足以覆盖全部债务金额，故不具备破产原因
B 丙公司对涉案债务提供保证且具有清偿能力，甲公司可以据此申请继续经营而不进入破产程序
C 乙银行在向甲公司申报破产债权后，应当受破产程序约束，不得再向丙公司另行主张担保责任
D 乙银行在向甲公司申报破产债权后，仍有权依法请求丙公司承担担保责任
考点 45 破产案件的受理
第6题 甲公司于2021年8月1日被法院受理破产申请，后管理人发现甲公司于2021年5月向乙公司支付1200万元用于购买设备，乙公司于2021年7月10日发货，管理人于8月13日收到该批设备。据此，下列说法正确的是：(2022-回忆版-单)
A 管理人可将该批设备列为债务人财产
B 乙公司有权取回该批设备
C 管理人有权解除该合同
D 管理人有权向法院申请撤销对乙公司价款的支付
第7题 乙公司拖欠甲公司债务无法清偿，甲公司向法院起诉。诉讼中，甲公司向法院申请冻结了乙公司的100万元银行存款。胜诉后，甲公司申请强制执行。法院拟将冻结的资金转移给甲公司，但此时乙公司已经被法院受理破产申请。据此，下列说法正确的是：(2024-回忆版-单)
A 待宣告破产裁定作出后，解除资金冻结，将资金移交破产管理人
B 应终止执行，自法院受理破产申请后，将该资金移交破产管理人
C 应中止执行，自法院受理破产申请后，将该资金移交破产管理人
D 应继续执行，自法院受理破产申请后，将该资金转移给甲公司
第8题 甲公司向A银行借款1000万元，王某为该笔借款提供担保。借款协议和担保协议中均约定，若发生纠纷，应向乙仲裁委申请仲裁。因甲公司到期未能偿还借款，A银行遂向乙仲裁委申请仲裁。2024年3月，在仲裁程序进行中，甲公司向两法院申请破产已被受理。随后，王某申报债权1000万元，管理人仅认可部分债权金额。王某提出异议，但管理人拒绝调整金额。甲公司债权人会议于6月15日完成核查债权，此时A银行仍未申报债权。据此，下列哪一选项是正确的？(2024-回忆版-单)
A 乙仲裁委应当驳回A银行的请求，告知其向管理人申报债权
B 因A银行与甲公司的仲裁尚未终结，A银行不得向甲公司的管理人申报债权
C 王某应当向乙仲裁委申请确认债权债务关系
D 王某应当在6月30日前向两法院提起债权确认的诉讼
考点 46 管理人
第9题 棋航公司向法院申请破产，法院受理并指定甲为管理人。债权人会议决定设立债权人委员会。现昊泰公司提出受让棋航公司的全部业务与资产。甲的下列哪些做法是正确的？(2016/3/31改编-多)
A 代表棋航公司决定是否向昊泰公司转让业务与资产
B 将转让事宜交由法院决定
C 提议召开债权人会议通过转让事宜
D 作出是否转让的决定并将该转让事宜报告债权人委员会
第10题 甲公司被受理破产，法院指定了金公律师事务所为破产管理人。为保证破产程序顺利进行，该律师事务所准备聘请三位会计师进行账目清理工作。对此，下列说法正确的是：(2021-回忆版-多)
A 管理人可以直接决定聘请财务人员
B 管理人聘请财务人员以及确定报酬方案需要经过债权人会议同意
C 债权人会议有权审查聘财务人员的报酬
D 聘请财务人员的费用可以从破产财产中随时清偿
考点 47 债权人会议、债权人委员会
第11题 法院受理林论公司的破产申请，并指定了管理人。债权人甲公司向管理人申报了1亿元债权，管理人审查后认定甲公司的债权难以确定，因此未确认甲公司申报的债权。林论公司第一次债权人会议于2023年11月15日召开，甲公司要求参加并行使表决权。下列哪一说法是正确的？(2023-回忆版-单)
A 甲公司不能就申报债权数额的争议向法院提起诉讼
B 甲公司的债权尚未经确认，其不能行使表决权
C 甲公司有权按自己申报的1亿元债权额行使表决权
D 甲公司的债权尚未经确认，其无权参加林论公司第一次债权人会议
考点 48 破产费用和共益债务
第12题 拜泰公司因资产不足以清偿全部到期债务，法院裁定其重整。管理人为维持公司运行，向齐某借款20万元支付水电费和保安费，约定1年内还清就不计利息。1年后拜泰公司未还款，还因不能执行重整计划被法院宣告破产。关于齐某的债权，下列哪些选项是正确的？(2017/3/73-多)
A 与拜泰公司的其他债权合同等受偿
B 应从拜泰公司的财产中随时清偿
C 齐某只能主张返还借款本金20万元
D 齐某可主张返还本金20万元和逾期还款的利息
【English Version】
Commercial and Economic Law
Topic 13: Private Economy Promotion Law, Sole Proprietorship Enterprise Law, and Foreign Investment Law
The following is the full verbatim text of Topic 13, "Private Economy Promotion Law, Sole Proprietorship Enterprise Law, and Foreign Investment Law", from the 2026 Commercial and Economic Law Systematic Lecture Series by Yan Mengxuan:
Topic 13: Private Economy Promotion Law, Sole Proprietorship Enterprise Law, and Foreign Investment Law
I. The Private Economy Promotion Law
Knowledge Point 092 Fair Competition and Service Safeguard Measures
1. Fair competition (1) A nationwide unified negative list system for market access shall be implemented; (2) policy measures for production and business activities shall be subject to fair competition review before being formulated; (3) funds and other factors of production and public service resources shall be applied equally; (4) public resource transactions such as bidding and tendering and government procurement shall not involve conduct restricting or excluding private economy organisations; (except as otherwise provided by law) (5) monopolistic conduct and unfair competition in market economic activities shall be prevented and stopped.
2. Service safeguards (1) When formulating laws and other normative documents, relevant judicial interpretations, or making major decisions of relevance, opinions and suggestions shall be heard; and before implementation, a necessary period for adaptation and adjustment shall be allowed according to the actual circumstances. (2) Laws and other normative documents and interpretations concerning the specific application of laws shall not have retrospective effect. (Except for special provisions made in order to better protect the rights and interests of citizens, legal persons, and other organisations.) (3) Preferential policies for business entities shall be made public to society in a timely manner. (4) The sharing and mutual recognition of regulatory information shall be promoted, and graded and categorised regulation shall be implemented. (5) In principle, the method of "randomly selecting the subjects of inspection and randomly assigning law enforcement inspectors" shall be adopted. (Exception: key regulation covering all subjects shall be applied in special industries and key areas.) (6) The system of credit punishment for dishonesty and credit restoration shall be improved.
Knowledge Point 093 Protection of Rights and Interests
1. Protection of personality rights and property rights (1) The personality rights and interests of private economy organisations and their operators shall be protected; where a person suffers actual loss as a result of malicious infringement of his or her personality rights and interests, the infringer shall bear liability for compensation in accordance with the law. (2) Where property is expropriated or requisitioned for the needs of the public interest in accordance with the provisions of the law, fair and reasonable compensation shall be given. (3) Fees shall not be collected from private economy organisations in violation of laws or regulations, fines shall not be imposed without a basis in laws or regulations, and property shall not be apportioned to private economy organisations.
2. Prohibition on unlawfully interfering in economic disputes by administrative or criminal means (1) Economic disputes and economic crimes shall be strictly distinguished, and the provisions of the law on the limitation period for prosecution shall be observed. (2) Property shall not be sealed up, seized, or frozen beyond the authority, scope, amount, or time limit prescribed. (3) Compulsory measures restricting personal freedom shall be implemented strictly in accordance with the statutory authority, conditions, and procedures. (4) Cross-regional law enforcement shall be regulated, and a system of assistance for cross-regional law enforcement shall be established and improved. Abusing powers to conduct cross-regional law enforcement for economic benefit or other purposes is prohibited.
3. Protection of contractual rights and interests (1) State organs, public institutions, and state-owned enterprises shall pay amounts owed to private economy organisations in a timely manner in accordance with the law or as agreed in the contract; they shall not forcibly require audit results to be used as the basis for settlement. (2) Large enterprises shall reasonably agree on payment periods and pay amounts owed in a timely manner, and shall not make receipt of payment from a third party a condition for paying amounts owed to small and medium-sized private economy organisations. (3) Local people's governments at all levels and their relevant departments shall honour the policy commitments lawfully made to private economy organisations and the contracts concluded with private economy organisations; where it is necessary to change a policy commitment or a contract provision for the needs of national interests or social public interests, it shall be done in accordance with the statutory authority and procedures, and compensation shall be made for the losses suffered by the private economy organisation as a result.
II. The Sole Proprietorship Enterprise Law
Knowledge Point 094 Concept, Characteristics, and Satisfaction of Debts of a Sole Proprietorship Enterprise ★
1. Concept A sole proprietorship enterprise refers to a business entity established in accordance with the law within the territory of China, invested in by one natural person, the property of which belongs to the investor personally, and the investor bears unlimited liability for the debts of the enterprise with his or her personal property.
2. Characteristics (1) The investor may only be one natural person; (2) a sole proprietorship enterprise has no legal person status and does not have independent legal person standing; (3) all the property of a sole proprietorship enterprise belongs to the investor personally; (4) the investor enjoys absolute control and domination over the operation and management of the enterprise, free from interference by any other person.
[Common Mistake] A single natural person engaged in commercial activities may establish a company, which is an independent legal person governed by the rules of the Company Law; or may establish a sole proprietorship enterprise, which is a non-legal-person organisation governed by the Sole Proprietorship Enterprise Law.
1. Satisfaction of the debts of a sole proprietorship enterprise
Knowledge Point 095 Management of the Affairs of a Sole Proprietorship Enterprise
| Subject / Category | Item | Content |
| Investor | Mode of management | (1) The investor may manage the affairs of the enterprise himself or herself; (2) the investor may also entrust or employ another person with capacity for civil conduct to be responsible for the management of the affairs of the enterprise; (3) a restriction imposed by the investor on the authority of the entrusted person or the person employed may not be asserted against a bona fide third party. |
| Entrusted person | Prohibited conduct | The entrusted person or the person employed shall not engage in any of the following conduct: (1) using the convenience of his or her position to solicit or accept bribes, or to misappropriate the property of the enterprise; (2) misappropriating the funds of the enterprise for personal use or lending them to another person; (3) disclosing the trade secrets of the enterprise. |
| Conduct not to be engaged in without permission | (1) Without authorisation, opening an account in his or her own name or in the name of another person to deposit the funds of the enterprise, providing security with the property of the enterprise, or transferring the trademark or other intellectual property rights of the enterprise to another person for use; (2) without the consent of the investor, engaging in business that competes with the enterprise, concluding a contract with the enterprise, or conducting transactions with the enterprise. | |
| Liability for compensation | Where the entrusted person or the person employed, in managing the affairs of the enterprise, violates the contract concluded between the two parties and thereby causes damage to the investor, he or she shall bear civil liability for compensation. |
III. The Foreign Investment Legal System
Knowledge Point 096 Concept and Specific Types of Foreign Investment ★
1. Concept Foreign investment refers to investment activities conducted directly or indirectly within the territory of China by a foreign natural person, enterprise, or other organisation (hereinafter referred to as a "foreign investor").
2. Specific types (1) A foreign investor establishes a foreign-invested enterprise within the territory of China alone or jointly with other investors; (2) a foreign investor acquires shares, equity, property shares, or other similar rights and interests in an enterprise within the territory of China; (3) a foreign investor invests in a new project within the territory of China alone or jointly with other investors; (4) investment in other forms as prescribed by laws, administrative regulations, or the State Council.
Knowledge Point 097 Measures to Promote Foreign Investment ("A Blueprint") ★
1. Pre-establishment national treatment for foreign investment (1) At the stage of investment access, foreign investors and their investments shall be accorded treatment no less favourable than that accorded to domestic investors and their investments; (2) where an international treaty or agreement concluded or acceded to by China provides more favourable treatment for the access of foreign investors, the relevant provisions may be applied.
2. Establishing special economic zones and granting preferential treatment (1) The State shall, as needed, establish special economic zones, or implement pilot policy measures for foreign investment in certain regions, in order to promote foreign investment and expand opening up. (2) The State shall, according to the needs of national economic and social development, encourage and guide foreign investors to invest in specific industries, fields, and regions. Foreign investors and foreign-invested enterprises may enjoy preferential treatment in accordance with the law.
3. Equal participation and fair competition (1) The State shall ensure that foreign-invested enterprises participate in the formulation of standards on an equal footing in accordance with the law, and shall strengthen the openness of information on standard formulation and social supervision; (2) mandatory standards formulated by the State shall apply equally to foreign-invested enterprises; (3) the State shall ensure that foreign-invested enterprises participate in government procurement activities through fair competition in accordance with the law; (4) foreign-invested enterprises may raise funds in accordance with the law through the public issuance of shares, corporate bonds, and other securities, and by other means.
Knowledge Point 098 Measures to Protect Foreign Investment ("A Reassurance") ★
The State has adopted a series of protective measures for foreign-invested enterprises:
1. No expropriation of the investments of foreign investors (1) Under special circumstances, the State may, for the needs of the public interest, expropriate or requisition the investments of foreign investors in accordance with the provisions of the law. (2) Expropriation or requisition shall be carried out in accordance with the statutory procedures, and fair and reasonable compensation shall be given in a timely manner. (3) The capital contributions, profits, liquidation proceeds, and other amounts of a foreign investor within the territory of China may be freely remitted into or out of China in RMB or in foreign currency in accordance with the law.
2. Protection of intellectual property rights (1) The State protects the intellectual property rights of foreign investors and foreign-invested enterprises; legal liability for acts infringing intellectual property rights shall be strictly pursued in accordance with the law. (2) The State encourages technical cooperation in the course of foreign investment on the basis of the voluntary principle and commercial rules. Administrative organs and their staff shall not use administrative means to compel the transfer of technology. (3) Administrative organs and their staff shall keep confidential, in accordance with the law, the trade secrets of foreign investors and foreign-invested enterprises of which they become aware in the course of performing their duties, and shall not disclose them or illegally provide them to others.
3. Constraints on people's governments at all levels and their relevant departments | Item | Requirements / Content | | :--- | :--- | | Requirements for the formulation of normative documents | (1) The legitimate rights and interests of foreign-invested enterprises shall not be diminished, nor their obligations increased; (2) conditions for market access and exit shall not be set; (3) the normal production and business activities of foreign-invested enterprises shall not be interfered with. | | Honouring policy commitments | (1) Local people's governments at all levels and their relevant departments shall honour the policy commitments lawfully made to foreign investors and foreign-invested enterprises and the various contracts lawfully concluded; (2) where it is necessary to change a policy commitment or a contract provision for the needs of national interests or social public interests, it shall be done in accordance with the statutory authority and procedures, and compensation shall be made in accordance with the law for the losses suffered by the foreign investors and foreign-invested enterprises as a result. |
Knowledge Point 099 Measures to Manage Foreign Investment ("A Tightening Curse") ★
1. Negative list management A negative list refers to the special administrative measures for access that the State prescribes for foreign investment in specific fields. (1) The competent departments concerned shall examine applications for permission by foreign investors in accordance with the same conditions and procedures as apply to domestic investment, except as otherwise provided by laws or administrative regulations. (2) In fields other than those on the negative list for foreign investment access, management shall be implemented in accordance with the principle of equal treatment for domestic and foreign investment. (3) In fields in which investment is prohibited by the negative list for foreign investment access, foreign investors shall not invest. (4) In fields in which investment is restricted by the negative list for foreign investment access, foreign investors shall invest in compliance with the conditions prescribed in the negative list. (5) Handling: Where a foreign investor invests in a field in which investment is prohibited, the competent department concerned shall order the cessation of the investment activity and the disposal of shares or assets within a prescribed time limit, or take other necessary measures, to restore the state before the investment was made; where there are unlawful gains, the unlawful gains shall be confiscated.
2. The State establishes a foreign investment information reporting system (1) Foreign investors or foreign-invested enterprises shall report investment information to the commerce department through the enterprise registration system and the enterprise credit information publicity system; (2) the content and scope of foreign investment information reporting shall be determined in accordance with the principle of genuine necessity; (3) investment information that can be obtained through the sharing of information between departments shall not be required to be reported again.
3. Review system (1) The State shall conduct security reviews of foreign investments that affect or may affect national security, and a security review decision lawfully made shall be final; (2) where a foreign investor merges with or acquires an enterprise within the territory of China or otherwise participates in a concentration of undertakings, it shall be subject to review of the concentration of undertakings in accordance with the provisions of the Anti-Monopoly Law; (3) the organisational form, organisational structure, and rules of activity of foreign-invested enterprises shall be governed by the provisions of the Company Law, the Partnership Enterprise Law, and other laws.
To you who are striving
Your task is to level the ground, not to worry about the passing of time. Do the work of March and April, and the answer will come in August and September.
Topic 14: General Introduction to Bankruptcy Law, Part I
The following is the full verbatim text of Topic 14, "General Introduction to Bankruptcy Law, Part I", from the 2026 Commercial and Economic Law Systematic Lecture Series by Yan Mengxuan:
Topic 14: General Introduction to Bankruptcy Law, Part I
The legislative purpose of the Enterprise Bankruptcy Law of the People's Republic of China is to regulate enterprise bankruptcy procedures, to fairly liquidate creditor-debtor relationships, to protect the lawful rights and interests of creditors and debtors, and to maintain the order of the socialist market economy.
I. Application for Bankruptcy Cases
Knowledge Point 100 Grounds for Bankruptcy
Article 2 of the Enterprise Bankruptcy Law: Where an enterprise legal person is unable to pay its debts as they fall due, and its assets are insufficient to pay all of its debts or it manifestly lacks the ability to pay, its debts shall be liquidated in accordance with this Law. Where an enterprise legal person is in the circumstances prescribed in the preceding paragraph, or is manifestly likely to lose its ability to pay, it may undergo reorganisation in accordance with this Law.
It can be seen that the grounds for bankruptcy are the precondition for an enterprise legal person to initiate bankruptcy proceedings. When the grounds for bankruptcy arise, the enterprise legal person may satisfy its debts in accordance with the rules of bankruptcy.
1. Determination of "grounds for bankruptcy"
| Concept | Procedures that may be initiated | Examples |
| Inability to pay + liabilities exceeding assets | Where the following circumstances exist simultaneously, the court shall find that the debtor is unable to pay its debts as they fall due: (1) the creditor-debtor relationship has been lawfully established; (2) the time limit for performance of the debt has expired; (3) the debtor has not fully paid the debt. | The first bankruptcy case: Shenyang Explosion-Proof Equipment Factory had suffered continuous losses for more than ten years, had only just over RMB 50,000 in fixed assets, but owed as much as RMB 480,000 in debts, and was declared bankrupt in August 1986. |
| Inability to pay + manifest lack of ability to pay (the money is gone, the people are gone, compulsory enforcement fails, and turning losses into profits is hopeless) | Where any of the following circumstances arises, the debtor shall be found to manifestly lack the ability to pay: (1) the debtor is unable to pay its debts because of serious shortage of funds or because its property cannot be realised; (2) the legal representative is missing and no other person is responsible for managing the property, so that the debts cannot be paid; (3) after compulsory enforcement by the court, the debts cannot be paid; (4) the debtor has suffered long-term losses and has difficulty turning losses into profits, so that the debts cannot be paid; (5) other circumstances causing the debtor to lose the ability to pay. | A choice may be made: reorganisation, conciliation, or liquidation (choose one of the three) |
| Manifest likelihood of losing the ability to pay | Although the objective fact of inability to pay has not yet arisen, an operational crisis has already arisen. | Reorganisation |
2. Handling objections to a bankruptcy application (1) Where a person who bears joint and several liability for a debt of the debtor has not lost the ability to pay, and on that ground asserts that the debtor does not meet the grounds for bankruptcy, the court shall not support such assertion. For example, where Milk Powder Company A meets the grounds for bankruptcy, but Company Jia, which provided security for one of its loans, is a normal enterprise, the bankruptcy application of Milk Powder Company A shall not be refused on the ground that Company Jia is normal. (2) Where an objection to a bankruptcy application is raised on the ground that the applicant has not paid the litigation costs in advance, the court shall not support such objection. (This is because "litigation costs" fall within "bankruptcy expenses", which, after acceptance, are paid at any time from the bankruptcy estate. See the discussion below.) (3) Where an objection to a bankruptcy application is raised on the ground that the debtor failed to submit a statement of its property position and other materials at the time of application, the court shall not support such objection.
[Confusable Points] Liquidation under the Enterprise Bankruptcy Law vs. liquidation under the Company Law
| Item | Bankruptcy liquidation | Normal liquidation |
| Different causes | The grounds for bankruptcy have arisen. | Dissolution by resolution of the shareholders' meeting, occurrence of a ground for dissolution prescribed in the articles of association, the company falling into deadlock, and so on. |
| Different handling | An application for bankruptcy is made to the court, and the procedure is conducted in accordance with judicial procedure. | Liquidation by the shareholders themselves is the main form. |
Knowledge Point 101 Bankruptcy Applicants ★
The following four categories of subjects may request the court to rule that the debtor be subject to bankruptcy proceedings:
| Applicant | Conditions for application | Procedure applied for | Examples |
| Debtor | The grounds for bankruptcy have arisen (such as "inability to pay + liabilities exceeding assets"). | Reorganisation, conciliation, or liquidation (choose one of the three) | Company A is the debtor, and it must be required to meet the "grounds for bankruptcy", in order to prevent "false bankruptcy to truly escape debts". |
| Creditor | Evidence that the debtor is unable to pay its debts as they fall due must be submitted. [Common Mistake 1] The creditor need not prove "whether the debtor's liabilities exceed its assets or whether it manifestly lacks the ability to pay", because the creditor is an outsider and cannot prove the internal operating conditions of the debtor. [Common Mistake 2] The claim is an "already due, legally enforceable claim". | Reorganisation or bankruptcy liquidation (choose one of the two)〔1〕 [Common Mistake 1] A capital contributor has no right to directly initiate bankruptcy proceedings; whether to enter bankruptcy is a matter of the enterprise's operation, and a capital contributor has no right to directly interfere. | Company A owes Bank B RMB 10 million, which has fallen due and cannot be paid. Bank B may apply for the bankruptcy of Company A, but the claim must be an already due claim. |
| Capital contributor (shareholder)〔2〕 | (1) Early enough: after the court accepts the bankruptcy application and before it declares the debtor bankrupt; (2) large enough: a capital contributor whose capital contribution accounts for more than 1/10 of the debtor's registered capital; (3) passive entry: where a creditor applies for bankruptcy liquidation of the debtor, the capital contributor described above may request conversion to reorganisation proceedings. | Liquidation → Reorganisation [Common Mistake 2] The date of acceptance of the bankruptcy application ≠ the date of declaration of bankruptcy. The former refers to entering the judicial procedure, while the latter refers to a point where there is no remedy, after which the enterprise can only be deregistered. | Where Company A satisfies the conditions stated on the left, it may apply to the court for "conversion to the reorganisation of Company A". |
| Liquidator | Where an enterprise legal person has been dissolved but has not been liquidated or has not completed liquidation, and its assets are insufficient to pay its debts, the person who is legally responsible for liquidation shall apply to the court for bankruptcy liquidation. | (1) Only "liquidation" may be initiated; (2) the court shall declare the debtor bankrupt at the time it accepts the application. | Where the shareholders' meeting of Company A resolves to dissolve the company, and in the liquidation after dissolution it is discovered that the "grounds for bankruptcy" are met, the liquidator may apply for bankruptcy liquidation. |
〔1〕 A creditor may not apply for conciliation. This is because "conciliation" is simple and singular, relying solely on concessions by the creditors. Where the debtor has already fallen into the operational predicament of liabilities exceeding its assets, the creditor has a motive to reorganise and a motive to liquidate, but lacks the need to settle the creditor-debtor relationship, and a creditor proactively proposing conciliation does not accord with commercial practice. 〔2〕 Article 70(2) of the Enterprise Bankruptcy Law provides: "Where a creditor applies for bankruptcy liquidation of the debtor, after the people's court has accepted the bankruptcy application and before it declares the debtor bankrupt, the debtor or a capital contributor whose capital contribution accounts for more than 1/10 of the debtor's registered capital may apply to the people's court for reorganisation."
[In-Class Quiz]
1. In June 2020, the various creditors wished to apply for the bankruptcy of Xuan Cao Company to recover their debts. Xuan Cao Company owed Company Jia RMB 300,000 for goods, which was payable in October 2020 under the contract. Question: Does Company Jia have the right to apply for the bankruptcy of Xuan Cao Company? Answer: No. Company Jia's claim has not yet fallen due.
2. In June 2020, the various creditors wished to apply for the bankruptcy of Xuan Cao Company to recover their debts. Xuan Cao Company owed Company Yi RMB 400,000 for goods, which was repayable in January 2017, but Company Yi had never pursued the claim. Question: Does Company Yi have the right to apply for the bankruptcy of Xuan Cao Company? Answer: No. Company Yi's claim has already exceeded the limitation period.
Knowledge Point 102 Withdrawal of a Bankruptcy Application and Remedies
1. Before the court accepts the bankruptcy application, the applicant may request to withdraw the application.
2. Two rulings that may be appealed: Ruling of non-acceptance: Where the court rules not to accept the bankruptcy application, the applicant may appeal to the higher court. Ruling of rejection of the application: After the court has accepted the bankruptcy application and before it declares the debtor bankrupt, where upon examination it finds that the debtor does not meet the "grounds for bankruptcy", it may rule to reject the application. Where the applicant disagrees, he or she may appeal to the court at the next higher level.
II. Acceptance of Bankruptcy Cases
Acceptance refers to the act by which the court, upon receiving a bankruptcy application, considers the application to meet the statutory conditions and accepts it, thereby commencing the bankruptcy proceedings. Bankruptcy proceedings emphasise the fair satisfaction of the claims of all creditors, and the fair satisfaction of creditors is in turn founded on the stability of the debtor's property. In order to maximise the interests of the debtor's property, after the court accepts the bankruptcy application, a series of effects will arise for the satisfaction of debts and for civil litigation procedures.
Knowledge Point 103 Legal Effects After Acceptance of a Bankruptcy Case ★★
1. Prohibition of individual satisfaction (1) Individual satisfaction refers to an act of separate satisfaction outside the collective procedure after acceptance of the case; (2) after the court accepts the bankruptcy application, the debtor's satisfaction of debts to an individual creditor (including a secured creditor) is invalid.
[Principle] Where, after the debtor has been ruled by the court to have its bankruptcy application accepted, satisfaction of an individual creditor is carried out, such conduct plainly violates the principle of fair satisfaction.
1. Appointment of the administrator (1) Where the court rules to accept the bankruptcy application, it shall simultaneously appoint the administrator. (2) After the court accepts the bankruptcy application, the debtor's debtors or holders of the debtor's property shall satisfy their debts to the administrator or deliver the property to the administrator. Where the debtor's debtors or holders of property intentionally violate the foregoing provisions by satisfying debts to the debtor or delivering property to the debtor, thereby causing loss to the creditors, they are not relieved of their obligation to satisfy the debts or deliver the property.
2. Handling of executory contracts (1) Concept. An executory contract refers to a contract concluded before acceptance of the bankruptcy application in respect of which neither the debtor nor the other party has fully performed. For example, where both parties have concluded a construction works contract, and the works have not yet been completed because Xuan Cao Company has defaulted on the project payments and is now bankrupt, that contract is a "contract not yet fully performed by both parties". Another common type is a "sale with retention of title". (2) Handling. The administrator has the right to decide whether to terminate or continue to perform the contract, and shall notify the other party. Where the administrator decides to continue to perform the contract, the other party shall perform. (3) A contract is deemed terminated in the following three situations:
3. Effects of acceptance of a bankruptcy application on civil litigation procedures
| Type of procedure | Rules on handling | Examples |
| Civil litigation or arbitration proceedings in progress | (1) Civil litigation or arbitration concerning the debtor that has already begun but has not yet concluded shall be stayed; (2) after the administrator takes over the property of the debtor, such litigation or arbitration shall continue. | [Example] A sued Xuan Cao Company over a dispute concerning payment for goods. During the litigation, Court A sealed up the goods of Xuan Cao Company involved in the case. Court B subsequently accepted the bankruptcy application of Xuan Cao Company. At this time, the "sealing-up measure" taken by Court A shall be released. |
| Civil litigation commenced after the start of bankruptcy proceedings | Civil litigation concerning the debtor may only be brought before the court that has accepted the bankruptcy application. | |
| Preservation and enforcement procedures | (1) Preservation measures (freezing, seizure, sealing up, and so on) in respect of the debtor's property shall be released; (2) enforcement proceedings shall be stayed. |
1. Handling of objections to claims
| Premise | Handling |
| Situation 1: Before acceptance of the bankruptcy application, the parties concluded an arbitration clause or arbitration agreement. | Apply to the selected arbitration institution to confirm the creditor-debtor relationship (where there is arbitration, arbitration is required). |
| Situation 2: Before acceptance of the bankruptcy application, the parties did not conclude an arbitration clause or arbitration agreement. | The objector shall bring an action before the court for confirmation of the claim within 15 days after the end of the examination by the creditors' meeting. (Where there is no arbitration, litigation is required.) |
Knowledge Point 104 Procedure for Acceptance of a Bankruptcy Case
1. Where the creditor files the bankruptcy application
| Stage | Handling | Summary |
| 5-day notice | The court shall notify the debtor within five days from the date of receipt of the creditor's application. | This may be summarised as: "5 for notice, 7 for objection, 10 for ruling, and in special circumstances a 15-day extension with approval from the higher court". (5+7+10+15=37 days) |
| 7-day objection | Where the debtor objects to the application, it shall raise the objection with the court within seven days from the date of receipt of the court's notice. | |
| 10-day ruling | The court shall rule whether to accept the application within ten days from the expiry of the objection period. | |
| 15-day extension | Where there are special circumstances requiring an extension, it may be extended by 15 days with the approval of the court at the next higher level. |
1. Where the debtor / liquidator files the bankruptcy application (omitted)
III. The Administrator, the Creditors' Meeting, and the Creditors' Committee
Knowledge Point 105 The Administrator
1. Concept The administrator refers to a specialised institution established by law for the purpose of achieving the objectives of the bankruptcy proceedings and performing statutory functions.
2. How the administrator is appointed (1) Where the court rules to accept the bankruptcy application, it shall simultaneously appoint the administrator. (2) The remuneration of the administrator shall be determined by the court. (3) With the permission of the court, the administrator may employ necessary staff. (4) The resignation of the administrator from office shall be subject to the permission of the court; without justifiable reasons, the administrator shall not resign from office. (5) Where the creditors' meeting considers that the administrator cannot perform his or her duties lawfully and impartially, or has other circumstances showing incompetence for the post, it may apply to the court for his or her replacement.
[Teacher's Note / Common Mistake] The creditors' meeting has no power to directly replace the administrator; it may only "apply" for replacement.
1. Qualifications for serving as administrator
2. Rights and obligations of the administrator
| Dimension | Rights | Obligations |
| Debtor's property | The administrator's power to manage the debtor's property: (1) taking over the debtor's property, seals, account books, documents, and other materials; (2) investigating the state of the debtor's property and preparing a report on the state of the property; (3) managing and disposing of the debtor's property; (4) the debtor's debtors (sub-debtors) or holders of property shall satisfy their debts to the administrator or deliver the property to the administrator. | The administrator's obligation to report on major dispositions of property: (1) The administrator shall report to the creditors' committee in a timely manner; where no creditors' committee has been established, the administrator shall report to the court in a timely manner. (2) The administrator shall prepare in advance a plan for the management or realisation of the property and submit it to the creditors' meeting for a vote; where the creditors' meeting fails to pass the vote, the administrator shall not dispose of the property. (3) Where the creditors' committee considers that a disposition carried out by the administrator does not comply with the plan for the management or realisation of the property passed by the creditors' meeting, it has the right to require the administrator to correct it. Where the administrator refuses to correct it, the creditors' committee may request the court to make a decision. |
| Execution of the debtor's affairs | The administrator's power to execute the debtor's affairs: (1) deciding the internal management affairs of the debtor, the daily expenses of the debtor, and other necessary expenses; (2) before the first creditors' meeting is convened, deciding whether to continue or to stop the debtor's business; (3) representing the debtor in litigation, arbitration, or other legal proceedings; (4) proposing the convening of a creditors' meeting; (5) other duties that the court considers the administrator should perform. | The administrator's obligation to report on the exercise of his or her powers: (1) The administrator shall report to the court on his or her work; (2) the administrator shall report to the creditors' meeting on the performance of his or her duties, answer questions, and accept the supervision of the creditors' meeting and the creditors' committee. |
Knowledge Point 106 The Creditors' Meeting and the Creditors' Committee ★★
1. Distinctions
| Item | Creditors' meeting | Creditors' committee |
| Concept | The creditors' meeting refers to the decision-making body in which creditors participate in the bankruptcy proceedings and collectively exercise their rights. | (1) The creditors' committee refers to the body that represents the creditors' meeting in exercising the right of supervision; (2) whether to establish a creditors' committee shall be decided by the creditors' meeting, with written permission by decision of the court. |
| Composition | (1) Creditors who have lawfully declared their claims are members of the creditors' meeting, have the right to attend the creditors' meeting, and enjoy voting rights; (2) the creditors' meeting shall have representatives of the debtor's employees and of the trade union attending, to express opinions on relevant matters. | (1) The creditors' committee shall be composed of creditor representatives elected by the creditors' meeting and one representative of the debtor's employees or of the trade union; (2) the number of members of the creditors' committee shall not exceed nine. (Creditors + employees ≤ 9 persons) |
| Rules on convening | (1) The first creditors' meeting shall be convened by the court within 15 days from the date of expiry of the time limit for the declaration of claims; (2) subsequent creditors' meetings shall be convened where the court considers it necessary, or where the administrator, the creditors' committee, or creditors representing more than 1/4 of the total amount of claims propose to the chairman of the creditors' meeting that one be convened. | (None) |
| Voting rules | (1) General matters: a resolution of the creditors' meeting may be adopted where more than half of the creditors with voting rights attending the meeting approve, and the amount of claims they represent accounts for more than 1/2 of the total amount of unsecured claims; (2) Special voting matters: reorganisation and conciliation are subject to special voting rules. (See "Knowledge Point 119" below.) | (None) |
1. Rights
| Item | Creditors' meeting | Creditors' committee |
| Debtor's property | (1) Adopting the plan for the management of the debtor's property; (2) adopting the plan for the realisation of the bankruptcy estate; (3) adopting the plan for the distribution of the bankruptcy estate. | (1) Supervising the management and disposition of the debtor's property; (2) supervising the distribution of the bankruptcy estate; (3) in respect of a disposition of property that has a major impact on the interests of the creditors, the administrator shall report to the creditors' committee in a timely manner. |
| Power to decide on major matters of the debtor | (1) Adopting the reorganisation plan; (2) adopting the conciliation agreement; (3) examining claims; (4) electing and replacing members of the creditors' committee. | (None) |
| Other matters | (1) Applying to the court for the replacement of the administrator, and examining the expenses and remuneration of the administrator; (2) supervising the administrator; (3) deciding whether to continue or to stop the debtor's business. |
[Summary] Concerning the debtor's property, grasp "who decides, who executes, and who supervises":
IV. Bankruptcy Expenses and Common-Benefit Debts
Knowledge Point 107 Concepts of Bankruptcy Expenses and Common-Benefit Debts ★
1. Bankruptcy expenses (1) Bankruptcy expenses refer to the costs incurred by the bankruptcy proceedings themselves, which are paid in priority from the debtor's property for the conduct of the bankruptcy proceedings and for the common interests of all creditors. (2) Bankruptcy expenses specifically include:
2. Common-benefit debts (1) Common-benefit debts refer to debts incurred after the court accepts the bankruptcy application for the common interests of all creditors in managing, realising, and distributing the bankruptcy estate, and the creditor on the other side of such a debt is referred to as a "common-benefit creditor". (2) Common-benefit debts specifically include:
| Category | Content | Examples |
| Contractual debts | Debts arising after acceptance of the bankruptcy application because the administrator / debtor requests the other party to perform a contract that has not yet been fully performed by both parties. | [Example 1 — Contractual debt] Company A and Company B concluded a contract for the sale of raw materials with retention of title, and Company A paid the price in instalments. Company A had not yet paid 75% of the total price when its bankruptcy was accepted. Later, because the price of raw materials rose, the administrator of Company A decided to continue to perform the contract. The amount Company A now has to pay to Company B is a "common-benefit debt" under that contract. |
| Tort debts | (1) Debts arising after acceptance of the bankruptcy application where the administrator or relevant persons cause damage to another person in performing their duties; (2) debts arising after acceptance of the bankruptcy application where the debtor's property causes damage to another person. | |
| Debts arising from negotiorum gestio | Debts arising after acceptance of the bankruptcy application from negotiorum gestio (voluntary agency without mandate) in respect of the debtor's property. | [Example 2 — Debt arising from negotiorum gestio] Company A was accepted for bankruptcy in January 2021. In July of the same year, a sudden rainstorm disaster struck the area. Company B took it upon itself to transport goods of Company A worth RMB 1 million to a safe place, paying RMB 50,000 in transport costs for the purpose. Company B avoided greater losses for the other creditors of Company A, and the debt of RMB 50,000 is a "common-benefit debt". |
| Debts arising from unjust enrichment | Debts arising after acceptance of the bankruptcy application from unjust enrichment on the part of the debtor. | |
| Debts incurred for the continuation of business | (1) Labour remuneration and social insurance costs payable for the debtor's continued business, and other debts arising therefrom; (2) the administrator or a debtor that manages its own affairs may borrow money for the debtor's continued business. (Such borrowing may be satisfied in priority over ordinary bankruptcy claims, but may not be asserted to be satisfied in priority over claims secured by specific property of the debtor that already existed before.) |
Knowledge Point 108 Satisfaction of Bankruptcy Expenses and Common-Benefit Debts ★★
1. Where the debtor's property is sufficient to satisfy them Where the debtor's property is sufficient to satisfy the bankruptcy expenses and the common-benefit debts, no priority is established between the two; satisfaction occurs as and when the debts arise, at any time.
[Teacher's Note] The rule on satisfaction: "in order externally, in proportion internally".
1. Where the debtor's property is insufficient to satisfy them (1) Where the debtor's property is insufficient to satisfy the bankruptcy expenses, the bankruptcy proceedings are terminated; (2) where the debtor's property is insufficient to satisfy both the bankruptcy expenses and the common-benefit debts at the same time, the bankruptcy expenses shall be satisfied in priority; (3) where the debtor's property is insufficient to satisfy all of the bankruptcy expenses or all of the common-benefit debts, satisfaction shall be made in proportion.
[Example] Company A has been accepted by the court for bankruptcy, and the total value of its debtor's property is RMB 100,000.
| Situation | Handling | Rule |
| Scenario 1 | Company A owes RMB 180,000 in bankruptcy expenses and RMB 400,000 in common-benefit debts. | After the bankruptcy expenses are satisfied, there is no property left, so the bankruptcy proceedings are terminated and the common-benefit debts are no longer satisfied. If there are three items of bankruptcy expenses, a, b, and c, then: item a is satisfied in the amount of 10 × a/18; item b is satisfied in the amount of 10 × b/18; item c is satisfied in the amount of 10 × c/18. |
| Scenario 2 | Company A owes RMB 80,000 in bankruptcy expenses and RMB 80,000 in common-benefit debts. | First, the bankruptcy expenses of RMB 80,000 are satisfied in full, and the remaining RMB 20,000 is used to satisfy the common-benefit debts. Each item of common-benefit debt is satisfied in proportion within the common-benefit debts. If item a of the common-benefit debts is RMB 50,000, it is satisfied in the amount of 2 × 5/8. |
Topic 14 — Summary of Frequently Tested Angles (SUMMARIZE)
1. Whether a bankruptcy application filed by a creditor is established.
2. The conditions for a capital contributor to apply for bankruptcy reorganisation.
3. The effects of acceptance of a bankruptcy application on contracts and civil litigation procedures.
4. The distinctions between the powers of the administrator, the creditors' meeting, and the creditors' committee.
5. The identification of bankruptcy expenses and the order of their satisfaction.